Philosophy 
Essential
On Liberty
By John Stuart Mill. "The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection."
Intellectuals and Socialism
"In 1949, Hayek attributed the dominant position of planning in the West to the role of intellectuals, by which he meant 'professional second-hand dealers in ideas' such as journalists and commentators."
Why Do Intellectuals Oppose Capitalism?
By Robert Nozick: "Wordsmith intellectuals fare well in capitalist society; there they have great freedom to formulate, encounter, and propagate new ideas, to read and discuss them. Their occupational skills are in demand, their income much above average. Why then do they disproportionately oppose capitalism?"
Independent Study Guide: Philosophy
Liberty Guide offers a comprehensive resource for the independent study of philosophy. The study guide provides access to articles and reviews, online publications, blogs, associations, book recommendations and more. This guide is an indispensable tool for aspiring students of liberty.
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
By Adam Smith: "Smith argues that we naturally share the emotions and to a certain extent the physical sensations we witness in others. Sharing the sensations of our fellows, we seek to maximize their pleasures and minimize their pains so that we may share in their joys and enjoy their expressions of affection and approval."
A Treatise of Human Nature
By David Hume: Hume’s first major work of philosophy published in 1739 when he was just 29 yeas old. It is made up of three books entitled “Of the Understanding”, “Of the Passions”, and “Of Morals”. In the book he uses his skeptical rationalism to create an ambitious “science of man”.
The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted
By Thomas Hodgskin: "In this series of letters to Lord Braugham Hodgskin distinguishes between the natural right of property (based upon Lockean principles of natural law) and the artificial right of property (which is decreed by parliament). He associated the doctrine of the artificial right of property with Benthamite reformers who were attempting to reform the English state."
The Two Treatises of Civil Government
By John Locke: "Locke’s most famous work of political philosophy began as a reply to Filmer’s defense of the idea of the divine right of kings and ended up becoming an defense of natural rights, especially property rights, and of government limited to protecting those rights."
Saving Rights Theory From Its Friends
By Tom G. Palmer, from Individual Rights Reconsidered, edited by Tibor Machan (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2001)
Myths of Individualism
By Tom G. Palmer, Cato Policy Report, Vol. XVIII, No. 5 (September/October 1996)
On Moral Duties
By Marcus Tullius Cicero: "This treatise, then, may be regarded as an exposition of the ethical system of the Stoics of Cicero’s time, yet with a special limitation, purpose, and adaptation."
Vices Are Not Crimes
By Lysander Spooner: "Vices are simply the errors which a man makes in his search after his own happiness. Unlike crimes, they imply no malice toward others, and no interference with their persons or property."
The Ayn Rand Lexicon: Objectivism from A to Z
"This mini-encyclopedia of Objectivism is compiled from Ayn Rand's own statements on some 400 topics in philosophy, economics, psychology, and history." Now available online.
Recommended
Robert Nozick Vs. The U.S. Congress
Cato Adjunct Scholar, Richard Epstein, provides a philosophical analysis of the effort by the U.S. Congress to increase home ownership in society in this Forbes article. Contrasting the pattern principle of justice held by Congress against Nozick's justice in acquisition, it is a great work that shows how philosophy is important to the real world.
McCloskey on Capitalism and the Bourgeois Virtues
"Deirdre McCloskey of the University of Illinois at Chicago and the author of The Bourgeois Virtues talks with EconTalk host Russ Roberts about capitalism and whether markets make people more ethical or less. They also discuss Adam Smith's world view, whether people were nicer in the Middle Ages, and the role of prudence and love."
Freedom Properly Understood
By Tom G. Palmer: "Let us hold up a standard of freedom, expressed in clear and precise terms, not modified by misleading adjectives, and promote that standard to the public, in the knowledge that with freedom – because of freedom – we enjoy prosperity, peace, dignity, knowledge, health, and so many other benefits. But as we enjoy the blessings of freedom, let us not confuse those blessings with freedom itself, for on that path we are led to lose both freedom and its blessings."
Government, Bound or Unbound?
By Anthony de Jasay: "Collective choice starts where unanimity ends, and involves some deciding for all, where the “some” control the apparatus of government. It is the potential for some to benefit morally and materially at the expense of others that creates the bone of contention and that limits on government are meant to move out of reach."
Atlas Shrugged and Public Choice: The Obvious Parallels
By Bryan Caplan: "Though there is little evidence of mutual influence, Ayn Rand and public choice converge on a strikingly similar vision of the political process. Both emphasize the contradiction between the propaganda of government intervention and the reality. Government supposedly intervenes to advance the interests of the majority. In reality, however, its goal to advance the interests of political insiders at the expense of everyone else."
A Bill of Rights Europe Did Not Need
By Anthony de Jasay: "Even if it were less woolly and silly, the Charter of Fundamental Rights could hardly become a force for good."
The Legacy of Ayn Rand
Reason Magazine Senior Editor and "Radicals for Capitalism" author Brian Doherty takes the modernist measure of novelist, philosopher, and cult figure Ayn Rand.
History of Religion
How has the geography of religion evolved over the centuries, and where has it sparked wars? This map gives you a brief history of the world's most well-known religions: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Judaism. Selected periods of inter-religious bloodshed are also highlighted. Want to see 5,000 years of religion in 90 seconds? Ready, Set, Go!
The Question of Monopolies
By Nathaniel Branden. A reader asks "In a society of laissez-faire capitalism, what would prevent the formation of powerful monopolies able to gain control over the entire economy?"
The Foundations of a Free Society
By Nathaniel Branden. "The Soviet Union has invaded and successfully conquered every country on the planet, with one exception: New Zealand. The Soviet Union has chosen not to invade New Zealand. Question: Why? Answer: So we would know the market price of goods."
Ayn Rand interview with Phil Donue (1980)
Ayn Rand discusses her philosophy and writings with Phil Donahue. Audience question and answer follows. Part 1 of 5, via youtube. (Parts 2-5 also available on youtube)
Rand and the Right: Reflections on the 50th anniversary of Atlas Shrugged
By Brian Doherty: "Because of her opposition to New Deal government controls, novelist and philosopher Ayn Rand started off thinking of herself as a conservative. By the time her blockbuster novel, "Atlas Shrugged," was published 50 years ago this week, she'd changed her mind. She decided she was a radical -- a "radical for capitalism," that is."
The Humanitarian with the Guillotine
By Isabel Paterson: "Most of the harm in the world is done by good people, and not by accident, lapse, or omission. It is the result of their deliberate actions, long persevered in, which they hold to be motivated by high ideals toward virtuous ends."
The Rise of Government and The Decline of Morality
By James Dorn: "One cannot blame government for all of society’s ills, but there is no doubt that economic and social legislation over the past 50 years has had a negative impact on virtue. Individuals lose their moral bearing when they become dependent on welfare, when they are rewarded for having children out of wedlock, and when they are not held accountable for their actions. The internal moral compass that normally guides individual behavior will no longer function when the state undermines incentives for moral conduct and blurs the distinction between right and wrong."
A Reading List on the Principles of Liberty
Looking to understand the basics of libertarianism? This reading list offers books and articles that are central to the libertarian movement. Learn about the aims and contributions of libertarian thought in modern political life.
Libertarianism
On this page, Cato scholars discuss what it means to be a libertarian, including the basic principles of libertarian political thought, their implications in political action, and a treatment of some of the great exponents of free minds and free markets in recent history.
Judicial Philosophy
Much is heard in the media about judicial philosophy: Judges are said to be originalist, textualist, living constitutionalist, activist or deferential, all by virtue of their philosophy. On this page, Cato scholars discuss various judicial philosophies and what they mean in the struggle for individual liberty.
Political Philosophy
Political philosophy and practical politics are rarely found together; in the compromise-laden business of governing, attention to principle can disappear entirely. The Cato Institute prides itself on standing firm for what it believes in, and for championing its philosophy of liberty even when it's unpopular. Here are some discussions by Cato scholars about the value of taking a principled stance in politics, and of remaining true to one's philosophical convictions.
Rights Theory
Rights theory is the philosophy of a free society. Often the best way to protect individual rights is simply to make the moral case for individual autonomy. Here is a sampling of Cato scholars' work in this vein, on issues ranging from the Federal Marriage Amendment to the federal war on obesity.
Globalization, Cosmopolitanism, and Personal Identity
Many critics of increasing freedom of trade and of movement, and the phenomena of cosmopolitanism and globalization that result from such freedom, insist that the consequence of greater trade and movement is a net loss of identity. Globalization is, they allege, destructive of personal identity itself, which they see as reliant on sharply delineated differences among cultures. In this paper, Tom Palmer sets out the anti-globalist critique and then shows that cosmopolitanism and globalization are hardly new phenomena, but have deep roots in European civilization.
